Introduction: Waste in the EU economy – from linear to circular economy
Linear Economy: Waste Hierarchy and Statistics
In 2013, total waste generation in the EU amounted to approximately 2.5 billion tons, of which 1.6 billion tons were not reused or recycled, and were therefore lost for the European economy. It is estimated that an additional 600 million tons could be recycled or reused. While only a limited share (43%) of the municipal waste generated in the Union was recycled, the rest was landfilled (31%) or incinerated (26%). 
As will be explored in more detail in this course, the EU has adopted over the years a “waste hierarchy”. This sets a priority order within the many possible ways to deal with different types of waste, which was elaborated and progressively refined with regard to this strategy. The most favoured way of handling waste is prevention, i.e. the reduction of the production of waste in the first place. Manufacturers, when designing their products, have a strategic role in this respect. The second most favoured way of dealing with waste is recovery: return, collection and reuse or recycling are thus promoted, and markets where recycled products are sold should be supported, in an effort to help to balance those markets. Finally, waste disposal, i.e. incineration or dumping in landfill or waters, must be reduced to the minimum. However, this hierarchy leaves room for some flexibility; its application must take account of local conditions, economic and social impacts, as well as a life-cycle thinking approach.
According to a report published by the European Environmental Agency (hereinafter - the EEA), there is an evidence of a shift up the waste hierarchy with respect to the municipal waste generated in the period 2001–2010 in the EU-27: landfilling decreased by 41 million tons, incineration increased by nearly 15 million tons and recycling and composting increased by 28 million tons. However, this aggregation of countries masks large differences between the countries in terms of their individual waste management performance, and the total amount of municipal waste recycled has declined slightly since 2008. The number of countries that mainly rely on landfilling for municipal waste decreased between 2001 and 2010. The number of countries landfilling more than 75% of municipal waste fell from 17 in 2001 to 11 million tons in 2010, while those landfilling more than 50% of municipal waste decreased from 22 to 19 million tons. In the same period, the number of countries that incinerated more than 25% of their municipal waste rose slightly (from 8 to 10 countries) and the number recycling more than 25% of municipal waste increased from 11 to 16 countries. However, more than half of the countries still landfill more than 50% of their municipal waste.