Introduction

According to the European Environmental Agency (EEA), air pollution is the single largest environmental health risk in Europe, causing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, which, in the most serious cases, lead to premature deaths (approx. 400 thousand EU-wide annually). Even though air quality in Europe has improved over recent decades, the levels of air pollutants still exceed EU standards and the most stringent World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines . Latest official data show that almost all Europeans still suffer from air pollution, leading to about 400,000 premature deaths across the continent.

Emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases from large industrial sites in Europe cost society between €277 and €433 billion. About half of the annual cost is caused by just 211 facilities, around 2 % of the largest industrial sites in Europe. The main polluting facilities are located in Germany, the UK, Poland, Spain and Italy. When the costs are compared to GDP as an indicator of relative environmental performance per unit of national economic output, the top five comprises Estonia, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia. Thermal power plants — mostly running on coal — cause the largest harm to people’s health and the environment: 24 of the top-30 polluting facilities are thermal power stations. The sectors with the highest externalities are topped by the energy sector, followed by heavy industry, fuel production and processing, light industry, waste management, livestock and wastewater treatment.

The major air pollutants which are emitted into the atmosphere in Europe are sulfur dioxide (SO²), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ammonia (NH³), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) and particulate matters (PM10 and PM2.5); historically, also lead was an important pollutant. The European Union took legislative measures to reduce air emissions from these, but also from other pollutants (ozone-depleting substances and of greenhouse gases).

How are we exposed? One example of direct or linear exposure to air pollution is inhalation. Those living in large industrial cities or regions typically experience more pollution than rural communities. For other pollutants, such as heavy metals, the pathway is more complex. It can be through inhalation, but also through the consumption of contaminated food and drink. Besides people, air pollution and/or GHG emissions also harm plants, animals and their habitats, altering breeding cycles and biodiversity. Pollutants can also deposit on buildings and monuments and corrode vital infrastructure requiring costly repairs.

In general, people in bigger cities tend to be exposed to higher concentrations of nitrogen dioxide because of emissions from traffic. In central and eastern Europe, the burning of solid fuels for domestic heating and their use in industry results in the highest concentrations of particulate matter and benzo[a]pyrene (a carcinogen). People in southern Europe are exposed to the highest concentrations of ozone, the formation of which is driven by sunlight.

The average figures must not hide, though, that there are considerable differences in air quality within the EU. This is due to a great number of different factors, including geography, air and weather conditions etc. However, one important factor is the determination of national, regional and local authorities to become active against the contamination of the air and to enforce the application of the existing provisions; the town and country planning, in particular as regards traffic; citizens' involvement and readiness to contribute to not accepting air pollution as a case of "force majeure" and to insist in fighting it.